(Post by Seth M. Rodriquez)

When people think of “biblical archaeology” they usually think of cities such as Jerusalem, Jericho, or Capernaum.  However, sometimes a road can be just as valuable as an archaeological “site.”

Our picture of the week is from Volume 15 of the revised and expanded version of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands, which focuses on Rome. The photo is entitled, “Appian Way with Ancient Paving Stones.”

Although never explicitly mentioned in Acts 28, there can be little doubt that the Apostle Paul walked this road as he traveled from Puteoli (Acts 28:13) to Rome (Acts 28:14).  From Puteoli, Paul and his escort of Roman soldiers probably travelled north to Capuae (also spelled Capua) where they travelled the rest of the journey to Rome on the Appian Way.  In his 1962 work on Archaeology and the New Testament, Merrill F. Unger describes the journey in this way:

Not far from Puteoli at Capua, Paul and the group got on the Appian Way which connected with Rome via The Forum of Appius and The Three Taverns.  Extensive sections of this well-paved road, planned by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 B.C., still exist, lined with tombs, sites of ancient Roman villas, and ruins of ancient aqueducts. … From Capua it was 132 miles to Rome. …

Since the Appian Way from Capua to Terracina Romeward skirted near the shore, picturesque vistas of land often combined with a magnificent view of the sea. …

At the Forum of Appius, 43 miles from the metropolis on the Tiber, Paul and the group had a pleasant surprise.  Some of the believers at Rome, Luke writes, “came to meet us” (Acts 28:15), employing a word (apantēsis) technically used for the official welcome of a visiting dignitary by a deputation which went out of a city to greet him and conduct him on his way for the last part of his journey. …

Now on both sides of the Appian Way were seen the tombs and funerary memorials of the generals, conquerors, and distinguished men who had raised an obscure Italian town to the position of the first city of the world, and surrounded it with a halo of martial glory unexcelled by any other metropolis.  Many of these illustrious Romans had passed over this same road to enjoy a magnificent triumph in the city.  But the prisoner who that day was surrounded by a retinue of converts and a few Roman soldiers was being led in a triumph far more memorable than that of any victorious Roman general.

Excerpt is taken from Merrill F. Unger, Archaeology and the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962), 314-316, and can be purchased here.  This and other photos of Rome are included in Volume 15 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands and can be purchased here.

(Post by Seth M. Rodriquez)

In 1 Corinthians 11:17-34, Paul describes an extremely dysfunctional church event.  When the church gathered to observe the Lord’s Supper, there were divisions and factions (v. 18-19) due to the fact that people were not sharing food with those who were hungry and were eating before the others arrived (vv. 21, 33-34).  What could have possessed them to act in such an unloving way during one of the holiest events in the life of their church?

In his book St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology, Jerome Murphy-O’Connor suggests a historical context which could help explain this passage.  His suggestion centers around the fact that wealthy homes in that culture typically had two public areas: a room just inside the entrance called an atrium and a dining room called a triclinium.

Our picture of the week is an example of an atrium found in one of the houses at Pompeii.  This photo comes from Volume 14 of the revised and expanded version of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands, which focuses on Italy and Malta. The photo is entitled, “Pompeii House of Sallust Atrium.”  An atrium typically had a a rectangular pool in the center of the room called an impluvium.

Murphy-O’Connor suggests that part of the problem in the Corinthian church was due to the fact that a small group of the wealthiest church members were invited to dine in the triclinium while the rest of the members had to sit in the atrium.  He explains a hypothetical historical background in the following way:

Private houses were the first centers of church life.  Christianity in the 1st cent. A.D., and for long afterwards, did not have the status of a recognized religion, so there was no question of a public meeting-place, such as the Jewish synagogue. Hence, use had to be made of the only facilities available, namely, the dwellings of families that had become Christian. …

Given the social conditions of the time, it can be assumed that any gathering which involved more than very intimate friends of the family would be limited to the public part of the house …

… [T]he average size of the atrium is 55 sq. meters and that of the triclinium 36 sq. meters.  Not all this area, however, was usable. The effective space in the triclinium was limited by the couches around the walls; the rooms surveyed would not have accommodated more than nine, and this is the usual number …. The impluvium in the center of the atrium would not only have diminished the space by one-ninth, but would also have restricted movement; circulation was possible only around the outside of the square. Thus, the maximum number that the atrium could hold was 50, but this assumes that there were no decorative urns, etc. to take up space, and that everyone stayed in the one place; the true figure would probably be between 30 and 40. …

The mere fact that all could not be accommodated in the triclinium meant that there had to be an overflow into the atrium.  It became imperative for the host to divide his guests into two categories; the first-class believers were invited into the triclinium while the rest stayed outside.  Even a slight knowledge of human nature indicates the criterion used.  The host must have been a wealthy member of the community and so he invited into the triclinium his closest friends among the believers, who would have been of the same social class.  The rest could take their places in the atrium, where conditions were greatly inferior. Those in the triclinium would have reclined, as with the custom … where as those in the atrium were forced to sit ….

The space available made such discrimination unavoidable, but this would not diminish the resentment of those provided with second-class facilities.  Here we see one possible source of the tensions that appear in Paul’s account of the eucharistic liturgy at Corinth (1 Cor 11:17-34).  However, his statement that “one is hungry while another is drunk” (v. 21) suggests that such tensions were probably exacerbated by another factor, namely, the type of food offered. …

The reconstruction is hypothetical, but no scenario has been suggested which so well explains the details of 1 Cor. 11:17-34.  The admonition “wait for one another” (v. 34) means that prolambano in v. 21 necessarily has a temporal connotation; some began to eat before others.  Since these possessed houses with plenty to eat and drink (vv. 22, 34), they came from the wealthy section of the community and might have made a contribution in kind to the community meal. This, they felt, gave them the right to think of it as ‘theirs’ (to idion deiphon).  Reinforced by the Roman custom they would then have considered it their due to appropriate the best portions for themselves. Such selfishness would necessarily include a tendency to take just a little more, so that it might happen that nothing was left for the ‘have-nots’ (v. 22), who in their hunger had to content themselves with the bread and wine provided for the Eucharist.  However, as Paul is at pains to point out, under such conditions no Eucharist is possible (v. 20). 

Excerpt is taken from Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology, Good News Studies, vol. 6 (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, Inc, 1983), 153-161, and can be purchased here. This and other photos of Pompeii are included in Volume 14 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands and can be purchased here.  More information on Pompeii and additional photos (including another atrium) can be found on the BiblePlaces website here.

(Post by Seth M. Rodriquez)

In modern America, olive oil is something that is not given much thought or attention. It is occasionally used while cooking, but many people only encounter it while dining at an Italian restaurant when the waiter makes some available for dipping bread. All in all, it is not important in day-to-day life and we could readily do without it.

However, in biblical times, this was not the case. In fact, the opposite was true. Olive oil was something that was used everyday in every house for a variety of imporant purposes. It was used for cooking as it is today, but also much more. Olive oil was used as a base for purfume (Esth. 2:12) or used to anoint someone’s head to show them honor (1 Sam. 16:13, Luke 7:46). It was used as fuel in clay lamps to provide light (Matt. 25:3-4) even in a holy place such as the Tabernacle (Exod. 27:20). It was used in sacrifices (Exod. 29:40) and for medicinal purposes (Luke 10:34). The reason it became so important was not only because it was so versatile, but also because it was readily abundant in the Mediterranean basin where olive trees flourish. But the question arises, how was this vital product produced? One common process used in antiquity is described below.

For our “picture of the week” we will actually be focusing our attention on three photographs because they complement each other so well. They all come from Volume 13 of the revised and expanded version of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands, which focuses on Cyprus and Crete. This volume is an entirely new addition to the collection. The previous version of the PLBL had no pictures of either island.

The first photo is entitled “Olive Press at Palaipaphos.” (Click on the photo for a higher resolution.) After the olives had been harvested, this type of press was used to break the olives up and prepare them to be squeezed by a second type of press. The olives would be placed in the bottom of the basin and the round stone would be rolled over them.

The second and third photos show the type of press used in the second stage of the process. The second photo is entitled “Olive Press at Larnaca Museum,” and the third, “Idalion Olive Press Factory.”

The top picture is a reconstruction of an olive press at a museum in Cyprus and the bottom shows the archaeological remains of the same type of press at the site of Idalion. They both are of the same type of press but are photographed from opposite angles: the round circles in the foreground of the bottom picture are barely visible in the background of the top picture. Placing the pictures side by side, you can get a good idea of how this type of press worked.

After the olives had been broken up, they were placed in flat, circular baskets and laid on top of the stone circles.  Several baskets would be stacked together. The stack would then be pressed using the large wooden beams shown in the top picture. The pressure on the beams would come from the stone weights which can been seen in both of these pictures: the standing stones with holes drilled through their top section. These stones would be tied onto the beam pulling it down and placing pressure on the baskets and the olives, forcing the oil to ooze out. The oil would then drip down onto the stone bench and would be caught by the circular channel which had been cut into the bench. Within the channel, the oil would be funneled into a spout where it would pour into a basin or vessel. From there the oil would be taken and used for a variety of purposes.

These and other photos of Cyprus are included in Volume 13 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands and can be purchased here. More information on olives and olive trees can be found on the BiblePlaces website here and at the Life in the Holy Land website here.

This week’s photo focuses on what is arguably the last of the “Bible Places.”  If the Garden of Eden is the first Bible Place, the island of Patmos could be considered the last. 

Our picture of the week comes from Volume 12 of the revised and expanded version of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands, which focuses on the Greek Islands.  The photo is entitled “Patmos, View of Island North from Acropolis Panorama” (picture ID # tb061606331).  If you have this volume, the photo can be found in the Microsoft PowerPoint presentation on Patmos.  This photo is one of several beautiful panoramas that are available as part of the PLBL.  (Click on the photo for a higher resolution.)

Why is this the last of the Bible Places? The small island of Patmos is where John received his heavenly visions which were later written down in the last book of the Bible: the book of Revelation.  In Revelation 1:9 the apostle writes, “I, John, your brother and companion in the suffering and kingdom and patient endurance that are ours in Jesus, was on the island of Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus” (ESV).

Patmos is a small island: only 7.5 miles long and 6 miles wide. To walk from one end to the other would take only a few hours.  It is situated between modern Turkey and Greece, and is a volcanic island with rocky soil. The island was settled on and off throughout the centuries. During the Roman period, there is evidence that there was a temple to Artemis and a gymnasium there, so it is unlikely that John was alone during his stay. According to the notes in the PLBL, there have been over 300 churches built on the island over the last 2,000 years. With only 13 square miles of real estate, that means there has been an average of 23 churches per square mile!

How would being a tentmaker be an advantage to Paul while he was on his missionary journeys?  Archaeology provides some possible insights.

The picture of the week comes from Volume 11 of the revised and expanded version of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands which focuses on Greece.  The photo is entitled “Corinth Shop on Western Side of Lechaion Road” (photo ID # tb031706129).  Click on the photo for a higher resolution.

Paul stayed in Corinth for about a year and half during his second missionary journey (Acts 18:11). 

Here is how the book of Acts describes the beginning of his time in that city:

After this Paul left Athens and went to Corinth. And he found a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla …. And he went to see them, and because he was of the same trade he stayed with them and worked, for they were tentmakers by trade. And he reasoned in the synagogue every Sabbath, and tried to persuade Jews and Greeks. (Acts 18:1-4, ESV)

The term translated “tentmakers” could refer to craftsmen who were skilled in all sorts of leatherwork, not just in making tents.  As Paul worked alongside Aquila and Priscilla, they may have worked out of a shop such as the one shown in this picture.  Here they would have made leather goods, repaired leather items, and also sold their wares to the public.  Shops such as this were located along the Lechaion Road in Corinth as well as in the North Market.  However, it should be stressed that the exact location of Aquila and Priscilla’s shop (assuming they had one) cannot be determined.

Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, in his book St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaology, describes some of the advantages that Paul would have had if he worked in such a shop:

The way the participle and main verb are combined in 1 Thess 2:9, “working we proclaimed,” indicate that Paul did not separate work and preaching. Indeed, one of the advantages of leather-working was that he could easily do both; the environment was clean and pleasant, and the only sound the soft thump as the awl went in. …
From a shop in a busy market or giving on to a crowded street Paul had access, not only to co-workers and clients, but also the throng outside. In slack periods he could stand in the door and button-hole those whom he thought might listen …. It is difficult to imagine that his dynamic personality and utter conviction did not quickly make him a ‘character’ of the neighbourhood, and this would have drawn the curious, not merely the idlers but also those genuinely seeking.
The workshop also provided other advantages. Those attracted by his message could come in to question or chat as he worked. Married women with their attendants, who had heard of him, could visit on the pretext of coming to buy. In times of stress, when persecution or simple harassment threatened, believers could encounter him as clients. The workshop also brought him into contact with municipal officials. …
In sum, therefore, the workshop was a very astute choice for a missionary center, but it should not be imagined that Paul thereby had it easy. The average artisan of the period barely made ends meet … and in Paul’ case his wandering life made it difficult for him to build up the local reputation that outweighs competition. Long hours of exhausting toil were necessarily his lot, and how many times did he have to start all over again in another small shop in a strange city?

This and other photos of Corinth are included in Volume 11 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands and can be purchased here.  More information on Corinth and additional photos can be found on the BiblePlaces website here.  The quotation is taken from Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology, Good News Studies, vol. 6 (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, Inc, 1983), 169-170, and can be purchased here.

Acts 14 records an awkward situation that the Apostle Paul found himself in during his first missionary journey:

Now at Lystra there was a man sitting who could not use his feet. He was crippled from birth and had never walked. He listened to Paul speaking. And Paul, looking intently at him and seeing that he had faith to be made well, said in a loud voice, “Stand upright on your feet.” And he sprang up and began walking. And when the crowds saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voices, saying in Lycaonian, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men!” Barnabas they called Zeus, and Paul, Hermes, because he was the chief speaker. And the priest of Zeus, whose temple was at the entrance to the city, brought oxen and garlands to the gates and wanted to offer sacrifice with the crowds. But when the apostles Barnabas and Paul heard of it, they tore their garments and rushed out into the crowd, crying out, “Men, why are you doing these things? We also are men, of like nature with you, and we bring you good news, that you should turn from these vain things to a living God, who made the heaven and the earth and the sea and all that is in them. In past generations he allowed all the nations to walk in their own ways. Yet he did not leave himself without witness, for he did good by giving you rains from heaven and fruitful seasons, satisfying your hearts with food and gladness.” Even with these words they scarcely restrained the people from offering sacrifice to them. (Acts 14:8-18, ESV)

The ancient city of Lystra is located in central Turkey today.  A few pictures of the site can be found in Volume 9 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands.  It was a mainly market town and, as can be surmised from this passage, it contained a temple to Zeus.

However, our picture of the day comes from Volume 10 of the revised and expanded edition of the PLBL, which focuses on Western Turkey.  The photo is entitled “Cnidus Architectural Fragments, Bull with Garlands” (photo ID #: tb062206733).  This picture illustrates verse 13 (in bold above) which mentions the priest of Zeus bringing “oxen and garlands” so that he could offer sacrifice.  This seems to have been a common practice, not only in Lystra but in several other places as well.  Several carvings of bulls with garlands have been found in this region of the world. 

The picture above is one example of this common architectural motif.  (Click on the picture for a higher resolution.)  This object was found at Cnidus, a city on the western edge of modern Turkey.  It is a fragment of a decorative pillar depicting a bull’s head on each side.  The heads are connected by a garland, and tassels can be seen hanging down on either side of each bull’s head.  Within the garland are clusters of grapes and possibly some other fruit.

At least four examples of this motif can be seen in the PLBL collection:

Volume 9
“Pisidian Antioch stone with bull and garlands, tb010201834”
 
Volume 10
“Cnidus architectural fragments, bull with garlands, tb062206733”
“Ephesus fragment with bull and garlands, tb041405323”
 
Volume 12
“Samos Pythagorio Roman baths fragment with bull and garlands, tb061606256”

Little insights from archaeology such as this can add interest to the retelling of a familiar story and grab the listener’s attention.  Over the last few generations, many societies in the world (including the U.S.) have become extremely visually oriented.  Whether it watching television, going to the movies, or surfing the Internet, much of what people do today is visual.  Pastors and teachers should seek to meet people where they are and use multimedia resources to their advantage to communicate their message.  And similar to Paul and Barnabas, we need to make every effort that our message is not misunderstood.

This and other photos of the Cnidus are included in Volume 10 of the Pictorial Library of Bible Lands and can be purchased here. More information and a photo of Lystra can be found on the BiblePlaces website here.